Test 2 notes

 

  1. Know the functions of: ribosomes, golgi apparatus, smooth and rough ER, vesicles, peroxisomes, lysosomes, tonoplasts, contractile vacuoles, mitochondria and chloroplasts.    Be able to describe the sizes of vacuoles and vesicles.
  2. Be able to describe the similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts.  Know the names of the parts of the mitochondria.  Know the names of the parts of the chloroplast.  Know where their DNA is and how their DNA and ribosomes differ from the DNA and ribosomes in the rest of the cell.  Know what chemical conditions power ATP production in chloroplasts and mitochondria, and where the chemicals are located.
  3. Know what chromatin is and what it is made of
  4. Know what the nucleolus is
  5. Be able to describe the difference in free and bound ribosomes
  6. Know the meaning of the terms turgid and flaccid, and what types of solutions cause these conditions
  7. Know the meaning of hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic.  Know how animal cells respond under these conditions.  Know how plant cells respond under these conditions.
  8. Know the meaning of diffusion and osmosis, and be able to describe the conditions under which each of these processes would occur
  9. Be able to explain the difference between the cis and trans faces of the golgi apparatus
  10. Be able to describe the different types of exocytosis and endocytosis.
  11. Know what the functions and structure of actin and dynin are.  Know the difference between cilia and flagella.
  12. Understand the structure of the nucleus and the nuclear envelope
  13. Understand what desmosomes, tight junctions, and gap junctions are
  14. Know what the function of a cell wall is and what types of organisms have one
  15. Know the three types of structures that make up the cytoskeleton and what they are used for
  16. Be able to explain the differences between of active and passive transport.  Be able to list the different types of each.  If specific examples (e.g. sodium-potassium pump, proton pump, sodium gateway, etc.) were given, be able to give a reasonable explanation of what they do and how they do it.

 

TEST 3

  1. Know the three major stages of respiration and what order they occur in.  Know which ones require oxygen, which ones require ATP, and how much ATP or NADH they produce.
  2. Know the two major stages of photosynthesis.  Know which one produces energy and which one produces sugars.  Know what sugar is produced, and where that sugar is seen in respiration.
  3. Know how much energy, and how much pyruvic acid, the complete breakdown of glucose produces.  
  4. Know how fermentation differs from aerobic respiration and why it happens.  Know how much energy it produces, and be able to compare that to the energy production in aerobic respiration. 
  5. Be able to describe the fate of NADH in aerobic and anerobic respiration
  6. Know the byproducts – and their uses – of the two major types of fermentation listed in your book
  7. Know the parts of mitochondria and chloroplasts.  Know which ones have high concentrations of hydrogen ions, how those ions got there, and where they are going to diffuse to next.
  8. Know where the oxygen in photosynthesis comes from
  9. Be able to explain the advantages of C4 and CAM photosynthesis over C3. 
  10. Be able to explain what photorespiration is, when it happens, and why it is bad for a plant.  What enzyme is involved?
  11. Know the difference in anabolic and catabolic reactions, and the difference between kinetic and potential energy.  Be able to explain when these things happen in photosynthesis and respiration
  12. Know what wavelengths of light have the most energy, and which are most useful for photosynthesis
  13. Know when oxidative phosphoryliation and substrate level phosphorylation occur, and which one produces more ATP
  14. Be able to explain the concept of activation energy, and how the activation energy is modified by enzyme activity.  Know how activation energy applies to glycolysis, and what it does to the net yield of ATP from this process.
  15. Know the what processes use NADH and NADPH
  16. Be able to explain the difference in a co-enzyme and a co-factor
  17. Know the specific energy requirements of the calvin cycle and how the unique properties of cyclic light reactions meet these needs
  18. Be able to explain the function of rubisco, how oxygen disrupts it, and the SPECIFIC ways c4 and CAM plants protect rubisco
  19. Know what part of photosynthesis produces oxygen, what part produces ATP and what part produces 3GP
  20. Be able to explain how chloroplast and mitochondrial function is similar
  21. Know the functions of the different pigments found in plants
  22. Be able to explain enzyme-substrate interactions.
  23. Be able to explain the different types of allosteric inhibitors and activators. 
  24. Explain how competitive and non-competative inhibitors work
  25. What is induced fit
  26. What are the two photosystems?  Which one was discovered first, which one happens first in non-cyclic conditions, and what are the names of the pigments associated with each photosystem?
  27. What do the terms exergonic and endergonic mean?  What happens when these two types of reactions are coupled
  28. What do the terms oxidation and reduction mean?  Does oxidations require oxygen?
  29. What happens to cells that reach chemical equilibrium
  30. Be able to explain where most ATP comes from
  31. Know which processes in respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis require ATP
  32. Know how oxygen affects fermentation
  33. Be able to explain WHY heat or pH can denature an enzyme, and what that does to reaction rates

 

Test 4 Notes

  1. Be familiar with the functions of helicase, nuclease, primase, DNA polymerase I, DNA polymerase III, ligase, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, telomerase.  Be able to explain the role (if any) that each of these enzymes has in the following processes: DNA replication, transcription, translation
  2. Know the different steps in transcription and translation
  3. know what okazaki fragments are, how they are formed, WHY they are formed, and what unique feature of their template DNA  causes them to form
  4. what are the components of a nucleotide
  5. what are the nitrogenous bases?  Which ones link together?  Which ones are purines?  Which ones are pyramidines?
  6. what type of bonds hold DNA strands together?  What type of bonds are found between nucleotides within a strand?  How are these bonds affected by heat?  (HINT: Polymerase Chain Reactions) How are they affected by enzymes?
  7. Who was Rosalind Franklin, and what was her role in the discovery of the structure of DNA
  8. How do DNA and RNA differ?
  9. What are some of the ways that mutagens cause mutations?  What is the relationship between mutagens and carcinogens?
  10. What is a polyribosome?
  11. What determines if a ribosome will be free or bound?
  12.  Be able to read the “rosetta stone” chart; i.e. to read a codon sequence and determine the amino acid that is indicated by that codon
  13.  what unique feature of codon-anticodon paring causes the genetic code to have redundancy
  14.   know the difference in promoters, primers and start codons.  Know what terminators and stop codons are
  15.   understand the structure of a ribosome.  Be able to describe how it reacts with mRNA and tRNA.  (this includes knowledge of the E, P, and A sites on the ribosome)
  16.   Explain how tRNA anticodons, amino acids, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase work together to create redundancy in the genetic code.  (HINT: be sure you understand the substrate specificity of the different types of synthetase enzymes.)
  17.  know the functions of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, snRNA
  18. what is the difference in pre-mRNA and mRNA
  19. What are introns and exons?   Be able to explain alternative RNA splicing
  20. what are splicosomes and snRNPs?  What is their function?
  21.  understand the structure of a 5’ cap and a 3’ poly-a tail
  22.  understand leading strands, lagging strands, and the direction of growth for new strands of DNA and RNA
  23.  what are telomeres
  24.  what are primers
  25.  understand the types of mutation.  Know why insertions and deletions are usually so dangerous, and why three nucleotide insertions and deletions are not as bad
  26.  know what the backbone of a strand is made of and where it is located
  27.  be able to explain the semiconservative model of DNA replication that Watson and Crick proposed, and how it was confirmed with radioactive nucleotides
  28.  know how many nucleotides are found in a codon, and what a codon  does
  29.  how does DNA differ from RNA

 

Test 5 Notes

Genetics

  1. Be able to explain the meaning of the following:  dominant, recessive, incompletely dominant, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, self fertilization,  wild type, true breeding, gene, allele, monohybrid, dihybrid, trihybrid, codominance, haploid, diploid, pleiotrophic
  2. What is a test cross and when is one used
  3. Know the steps that happen during meiosis one and meiosis two.  Know how they differ.  Be able to identify these steps by site.
  4. How does meiosis in a woman differ from meiosis in a man? (HINT: polar body)
  5. How is meiosis different from mitosis?  How is it the same?  What happens before both?
  6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction?  What are the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
  7. What is a non-disjunction?  How does it affect the gametes if it occurs in meiosis one?  How does it affect the gametes if it occurs in meiosis two?
  8. Be able to understand written genotypes (e.g. Aa) and describe the phenotype of the affected organism
  9. Know how to use the number of chromosomes in an organism to calculate the number of combinations of chromosomes available to make a gamete
  10. What is down’s syndrome?  What causes this condition to occur?
  11. Be able to look at word problems listing parent geotypes and determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring
  12. Be able to use word problems to determine the genotypes of parents
  13. Know the ratios that are associated with the following crosses:  heterozygous x heterozygous, heterozygous x heterozygous (incomplete dominance), homozygous recessive x heterozygous, (….and any other listed on your hand out)
  14. Remember the relationship between maternal DNA and mitochondria
  15. What is polyploidy?  How can polyploidy and non-disjunction affect speciation?  What type of organisms does this happen in most frequently?
  16. How many chromosomes do humans have in a normal cell?  How many sex chromosomes?  How many autosomes?  How many of each of these in a GAMETE?
  17. Be able to look at drawing of ABO blood typing tests and determine the blood type of the patient
  18. Know the normal sex chromosomes for men and women, and what chromosomes they are able to pass on to their offspring
  19. Know how sex-linked chromosomes work.  Be able to solve genetics word problems that involve sex linkage
  20. What two components are found in all viruses
  21. Be able to solve word problems involving ABO and Rh positive or negative blood types
  22. Be able to solve trihybrid crosses

 

Biotech

  1. What are restriction enzymes?  What organisms was it first found in?  What are they used for in biotech?
  2. What are restriction sites?  What are sticky ends?  How are these used in biotech? 
  3. What are plasmids?  What organisms was it first found in?  What are they used for in biotech?
  4. What is DNA polymerase?  What is special about the polymerase used in PCR?  What organisms was it found in?
  5. What is DNA ligase?  Where is the normal function of this enzyme?  What are they used for in biotech?
  6. What happens to DNA that it absorbed into nitrocellulose paper?
  7. How are radioactive probes used in southern blotting?
  8. Be able to explain PCR step by step, noting the difference between hydrogen and covalent bonds
  9. Why do sticky ends stick together?
  10. What are some of the more common expression vectors?  What are some of their disadvantages and advantages
  11. What are the possible benefits of transgenic organisms?
  12. Why does DNA move towards the positive pole during electrophoresis?

 

Lab Final

  1. Be able to explain the setup of any of the labs, explaining the purpose of any equipment or chemical that was used. 
  2. Be able to identify any of the stages of meiosis and/or mitosis, and to say what things are happening in the cell during that stage
  3. Know how the stages of meiosis are different from mitosis, and how they are the same
  4. Know when fertilization occurs (what stage of meiosis)
  5. Know how temperature affects the respiration and activity rates of crickets.  Know how temperature affects the volume of a gas.  How did we eliminate this effect in our calculations?
  6. How does photosynthesis differ from respiration?  How are they similar?  What gasses are involved?
  7. Know how to read respiration and photosynthesis levels using fluid/gas locations in a glass tube
  8. Know the difference in the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis and what happens in each
  9. Know the pairing rules for DNA and RNA nucleotides, and what the differences are between DNA and RNA nucleotides